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​​Inductive Effect Important Points  ➖➖➖➖➖➖➖➖➖➖➖➖➖   (a) It can also be defined as polarisation of one bond caused by polarisation of adjacent bond.  (b) It is also called transmission effect. (c) It causes permanent polarisation in molecule, hence it is a permanent  effect.  (d) The displacement of electrons takes place due to difference in  electronegativity of the two atoms involved in the covalent bond.  (e) The electrons never leave their original atomic orbital.  (f) Its magnitude decreases with distance and it is almost negligible after 3rd carbon atom.  (g) The inductive effect is always operative through σ bond, does not involve π bond electron.

IIT JEE Class 12 11 Board CBSE: ✍️Revision Notes on Vectors✍️ ➖➖➖➖➖➖➖➖➖➖➖➖ The length or the magnitude of the vector  = (a, b, c) is defined by w = √a2+b2+c2 A vector may be divided by its own length to convert it into a unit vector, i.e. ? = u / |u|. (The vectors have been denoted by bold letters.) If the coordinates of point A are xA, yA, zA and those of point B are xB, yB, zB then the vector connecting point A to point B is given by the vector r, where r = (xB - xA)i + (yB – yA) j + (zB – zA)k , here i, j and k denote the unit vectors along x, y and z axis respectively. Some key points of vectors: 1) The magnitude of a vector is a scalar quantity 2) Vectors can be multiplied by a scalar. The result is another vector. 3) Suppose c is a scalar and v = (a, b) is a vector, then the scalar multiplication is defined by cv = c (a, b) = (ca, cb). Hence each component of vector is multiplied by the scalar. 4) If two vectors are of the same dimension then they can be added or subtracted f...

♦️Trigonometry- Solution of Triangles♦️ Sine rule: Sides of a triangle are proportional to the sine of the angles opposite to them. So, in ΔABC,   sin A/a = sin B/b = sin C/c = 2Δ/abc. This may also be written as (a/sin A) = (b/sin B) = (c/sin C) Cosine rule: In any ΔABC,  cos A = (b2 + c2 – a2) /2bc  cos B = (a2 + c2 – b2)/2ac cos C = (a2 + b2 - c2)/2ab Trigonometric ratios of half-angles:  sin A/2 = √[(s-b)(s-c)/bc] sin B/2 = √[(s-c) (s-a)/ac] sin C/2 = √[(s-a) (s-b)/ab] cos A/2 = √s(s - a)/bc cos B/2 = √s(s - b)/ac cos C/2 = √s(s - c)/ab tan A/2 = √[(s - b) (s - c)/s(s - a)] tan B/2 = √[(s - c) (s - a)/s(s - b)] tan C/2 = √[(s - a) (s - b)/s(s - c)] Projection rule: In any ΔABC,  a = b cos C + c cos B b = c cos A + a cos C c = a cos B + b cos A Area of a triangle If Δ denotes the area of the triangle ABC, then it can be calculated in any of the following forms: Δ = 1/2 bc sin A = 1/2 ca sin B = 1/2 ab sin C Δ = √s(s - a)(s – b)(s - c) Δ = 1/2. (a2 sin B ...

Electric Charges and Fields 1. Electric Charge Charge is the property associated with matter due to which it produces and experiences electric and magnetic effect. 2. Conductors and Insulators Those substances which readily allow the passage of electricity through them are called conductors, e.g. metals, the earth and those substances which offer high resistance to the passage of electricity are called insulators, e.g. plastic rod and nylon. 3. Transference of electrons is the cause of frictional electricity. 4. Additivity of Charges- Charge are scalars and they add up like real numbers. It means if a system consists of n charges q1, q2, q3 , … ,qn, then total charge of the system will be q1 +q2 + … +qn. 5. Conservation of Charge The total charge of an isolated system is always conserved, i.e. initial and final charge of the system will be same. 6. Quantisation of Charge -Charge exists in discrete amount rather than continuous value and hence, quantised. Mathematically, charge on an ob...

♻️Instantaneous velocity:- V=√u2+g2t2 If β be the angle which V makes with the horizontal, then, β = tan-1(-gt/u) Projectile fired at angle α with the vertical:- Time of Ascent, t = (u cosα)/g Total time of Flight, T = (2u cosα)/g Horizontal Range, R = u2sin2α/g Maximum Height, H = u2cos2α/2g Equation of trajectory, y = x cotα-(gx2/2u2sin2α) Instantaneous velocity, V=√(u2+g2t2-2ugt cosα) and β = tan-1(ucosα-gt/usinα) Projectile fired from the base of an inclined plane:- Horizontal Range, R = 2u2 cos(α+β) sinβ/gcos2α Time of flight, T = 2u sinβ/ gcosα Here, α+β=θ

⚡️TRICKS FOR AMINO ACID⚡️ 1.Basic Trick:- Loves his art   lysins   histidine   arginine 2. Acidic  Trick:- As Glue   Aspartic acid   Glutamic acid 3. Polar Trick:- Sera throw her cyster(sister) to get Aspirin.   Serine  Thrionine  Cystein  Glycine  Asparginine 4. Aromatic  Trick:- PhaTy Tyre     Phenylalanine     Tryptophan     Tyrosine 5. Non polar Tricks:- Professor Leucy Is Already at Valley Ground to Meet him.      Proline      Leucine       Isoleucine      Alanine      Valine      Glycine      Methionine

Tricks for Conversions in Organic Chemistry ✅Haloalkanes can give you every possible functional group. They can also help you in increasing the chain size. So you might want to convert your starting material to haloalkanes and then go to the desired product ✅Remember the series of oxidation/reduction: Hydrocarbons (with various substituents) can be oxidised to alcohols, then appropriate carbonyl compounds and lastly carboxylic acids (or their derivatives) ✅Strong oxidizing agents are KMnO4 and K2Cr2O7 ✅Mild oxidising agents depending on the situation are CrO4, Ammoniacal AgNO3, Benedicts Solution, Fehling’s solution, Cu or CuO at 573K, Bromine water etc. ✅Any carboxylic acid derivative can be converted back to the carboxylic acid by hydrolysis. ✅There are possibilities of hydride and methyl to get the most stable intermediate (carbocation/free radical) ✅A most common reaction, if your starting material is an alkane, is free-radical halogenation. ✅Saytzeff/Markovnikov's rules must b...

🎓🎓🧩Mathematics formulas🧩🎯🎯 1. (α+в)²= α²+2αв+в² 2. (α+в)²= (α-в)²+4αв 3. (α-в)²= α²-2αв+в² 4. (α-в)²= (α+в)²-4αв 5. α² + в²= (α+в)² - 2αв. 6. α² + в²= (α-в)² + 2αв. 7. α²-в² =(α + в)(α - в) 8. 2(α² + в²) = (α+ в)² + (α - в)² 9. 4αв = (α + в)² -(α-в)² 10. αв =1. (α + в + ¢)² = α² + в² + ¢² + 2(αв + в¢ + ¢α) 12. (α + в)³ = α³ + 3α²в + 3αв² + в³ 13. (α + в)³ = α³ + в³ + 3αв(α + в) 14. (α-в)³=α³-3α²в+3αв²-в³ 15. α³ + в³ = (α + в) (α² -αв + в²) 16. α³ + в³ = (α+ в)³ -3αв(α+ в) 17. α³ -в³ = (α -в) (α² + αв + в²) 18. α³ -в³ = (α-в)³ + 3αв(α-в) ѕιη0° =0 ѕιη30° = 1/2 ѕιη45° = 1/√2 ѕιη60° = √3/2 ѕιη90° = 1 ¢σѕ ιѕ σρρσѕιтє σƒ ѕιη тαη0° = 0 тαη30° = 1/√3 тαη45° = 1 тαη60° = √3 тαη90° = ∞ ¢σт ιѕ σρρσѕιтє σƒ тαη ѕє¢0° = 1 ѕє¢30° = 2/√3 ѕє¢45° = √2 ѕє¢60° = 2 ѕє¢90° = ∞ ¢σѕє¢ ιѕ σρρσѕιтє σƒ ѕє¢ 2ѕιηα¢σѕв=ѕιη(α+в)+ѕιη(α-в) 2¢σѕαѕιηв=ѕιη(α+в)-ѕιη(α-в) 2¢σѕα¢σѕв=¢σѕ(α+в)+¢σѕ(α-в) 2ѕιηαѕιηв=¢σѕ(α-в)-¢σѕ(α+в) ѕιη(α+в)=ѕιηα ¢σѕв+ ¢σѕα ѕιηв. » ¢σѕ(α+в)=¢σѕα ¢σѕв - ѕιηα ѕιηв. » ѕιη(α-в)=ѕιηα¢σѕв-¢σѕαѕι...

Some results which are useful for solving trigonometric equations: 1) sin θ = sina and cosθ = cosa ⇒ θ = 2nπ + a 2) sin θ = 0 ⇒ θ = nπ 3) cosθ = 0 ⇒ θ = (2n + 1)π/2 4) tan θ = 0 ⇒ θ = nπ 5) sinθ = sina⇒ θ = nπ + (-1)na where a ∈ [–π/2, π/2] 6) cosθ= cos a ⇒ θ = 2nπ ± a, where a ∈[0,π] 7) tanθ = tana⇒ θ = nπ+ a, where a ∈[–π/2, π/2] 8) sinθ = 1 ⇒ θ= (4n + 1)π/2 9) sin θ = -1 ⇒ θ = (4n - 1) π /2 10) sin θ = -1 ⇒ θ = (2n +1) π /2 11) |sinθ| = 1⇒ θ =2nπ 12) cosθ = 1 ⇒ θ =(2n + 1) 13) |cosθ| = 1⇒ θ =nπ

🔋Chemistry Mnemonics🔋 ACTIVITY SERIES OF METALS 🍎Potassium>Sodium>Calcium>Magnesium>Aluminium>(Carbon)>Zinc>Iron>Tin>Lead>(Hydrogen)>Copper>Mercury>Silver>Gold>Platinum🍎 Mnemonics 👌Please Stop Calling Me A Carless Zebra Instead Try Learning How Copper Miners Save Gold Pit 🧣Note that Carbon and Hydrogen are non-metals, used as a baseline.

💠Terminologies in Progressive Wave Motion💠 ➖Amplitude ➖Period ➖Wavelength ➖Frequency ➖Wave velocity ➖Phase or phase angle (O) ➖Phase difference ➖Path difference ➖Time difference 🔹Amplitude (A): The amplitude of a wave is the maximum displacement of any particle of the medium from its equilibrium position. 🔹Period (T): Period (T) of a wave is the time taken by any particle of the medium to complete one vibration during a period (T). 🔹Wavelength (λ): Wavelength (λ) is equal to the distance between two consecutive particles of the medium which are in the same state of vibration it is equal to the distance travelled by the wave by its time period (T). 🔹Frequency (f): It is the number of vibrations made per second by any particles of the medium (f = 1/T). Since the frequency of a wave is a characteristic property of the source which is producing the wave motion, hence, the frequency of a wave does not change when a wave travels from one medium to another medium. 🔹Phase or Phase Angle...

📚 Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry 📚 Matter: Anything that exhibits inertia is called matter. The quantity of matter is its mass. Classification of Matter:- Based on chemical composition of various substances. 📍Elements: ➖It is the simplest form of the matter.  ➖Smallest unit of an element is known as atom. ➖Total number of the known elements is 118 out of which 98 elements occur naturally and 20 are formed by artificial transmutation. ➖Examples: Na, K, Mg. Al, Si, P, C, F, Br etc. 📍Compound: ➖It is a non-elemental pure compound. ➖Formed by chemical combination of two or more atoms of different elements in a fixed ratio. ➖Examples: H2O, CO2, C6H12O6 etc. 📍Mixture: ➖Formed by physical combination of two or more pure substances in any ratio. ➖Chemical identity of the pure components remains maintained in mixtures. ➖Homogeneous mixtures are those whose composition for each part remains constant. ➖Example, Aqueous and gaseous solution. ➖Heterogeneous mixtures are those whose compo...

✅ Atomic and Molecular Masses ➖Atomic Mass: Mass of an atom. Reported in atomic mass unit “amu” or unified mass “u” One atomic mass unit i.e. amu, is the mass exactly equal to one-twelfth the mass of one carbon-12 atom. ➖Molecular Mass: Mass of a molecule of covalent compound. It is equal to the sum of atomic masses of all the elements present in the molecule. Formula Unit Mass Mass of a molecule of an ionic compound It is also equal to the sum of atomic masses of all the elements present in the molecule  ✅ Mole Concept: ➖Mole: Unit of amount of substance. One mole amount of substance that contains as many particles or entities  as there are atoms in exactly 12 g of the 12C isotope. ➖Molar mass: Mass of one mole of a substance in gram Molar mass in gram in numerically equal to atomic/molecular/formula mass in amu or u.

✅ Empirical formula and molecular formula: ➖Molecular Formula:- Represents the actual number of each individual atom in any molecule is known as molecular formula.  ➖Empirical Formula:- Expresses the smallest whole number ratio of the constituent atom within the molecule.  Molecular formula = (Empirical formula)n Molecular weight = n × Empirical weight also, Molecular weight = 2 × Vapour density  ➖Limiting Reagent: The reactant which is totally consumed during the course of reaction and when it is consumed reaction stops. For a balanced reaction reaction: A +B →  C + D B would be a limiting reagent if nA / nB>nB/nA Similarly, A is a limiting reagent if nA / nB<nB/nA ♻️ Concentration of the solutions: ➖Mass by Mass Percentage:- Amount of solute in gram present per 100 gm of the  solution.  Mass percentage of solute = [(Mass of solute)/(Mass of solution)] x100 ➖Mass by Volume Percentage:- Amount solute in gram present per 100 mL of the solution. ➖Volume...

🔰 Notes on Kinetic Theory of Gases 🔰 Kinetic Theory of Matter:- (a) Solids:- It is the type of matter which has got fixed shape and volume. The force of attraction between any two molecules of a solid is very large. (b) Liquids:- It is the type of matter which has got fixed volume but no fixed shape. Force of attraction between any two molecules is not that large as in case od solids. (c) Gases:- It is the type of matter does not have any fixed shape or any fixed volume. Ideal Gas:- A ideal gas is one which has a zero size of molecule and zero force of interaction between its molecules. Ideal Gas Equation:- A relation between the pressure, volume and temperature of an ideal gas is called ideal gas equation. PV/T = Constant  or PV = nRT Here, n is the number of moles and R is the universal gas constant. Gas Constant:- (a) Universal gas constant (R):- R= P0 V0/T0 =8.311 J mol-1K-1 (b) Specific gas constant (r):-  PV= (R/M) T = rT,            ...

Tricks for Conversions in Organic Chemistry ✅Haloalkanes can give you every possible functional group. They can also help you in increasing the chain size. So you might want to convert your starting material to haloalkanes and then go to the desired product ✅Remember the series of oxidation/reduction: Hydrocarbons (with various substituents) can be oxidised to alcohols, then appropriate carbonyl compounds and lastly carboxylic acids (or their derivatives) ✅Strong oxidizing agents are KMnO4 and K2Cr2O7 ✅Mild oxidising agents depending on the situation are CrO4, Ammoniacal AgNO3, Benedicts Solution, Fehling’s solution, Cu or CuO at 573K, Bromine water etc. ✅Any carboxylic acid derivative can be converted back to the carboxylic acid by hydrolysis. ✅There are possibilities of hydride and methyl to get the most stable intermediate (carbocation/free radical) ✅A most common reaction, if your starting material is an alkane, is free-radical halogenation. ✅Saytzeff/Markovnikov's rules must b...

Board Class 12 10 11 9 8 CBSE: ♦️Revision Notes on Flow of Liquids and Viscosity♦️(1/3) ➖➖➖➖➖➖➖➖➖➖➖➖➖➖➖➖ (Mechanical Properties of fluids):- Characteristic of Ideal fluid:- (a) It is incompressible (b) It is non-viscous (c) Flow of ideal fluid is irrational (d) It is capable of exhibiting steady flow Stream line flow:- Flow of a liquid fluid  is said to be streamlined if the velocity of a molecule, at any point, coincides with that of the preceding one. Laminar and Turbulent FlowTube of flow:- A bundle of streamlines having same velocity of fluid elements, over any cross-section perpendicular to the direction of flow, is called a tube of flow. Laminar flow:- It is a special case of streamline flow in which velocities of all the molecules on one streamline is same throughout its motion. Turbulent flow:- Whenever the velocity of a fluid is very high or it rushes past an obstacle so that there is a sudden change in its direction of motion, the motion of fluid becomes irregular, formin...

🌀Sodium➡️ ➖Sodium is a soft, silvery color, and highly reactive alkali metal. ➖In the periodic table, Sodium is kept in group 1, as it has single electron in its outer shell. ➖The symbol of sodium is ‘Na,’ which has been actually taken from Latin word ‘natrium.’ ➖In terms of abundance, sodium is the sixth element found in the Earth's crust. ➖Sodium exists in various minerals including feldspars, sodalite, and rock salt (NaCl). ➖In 1807, Humphry Davy first isolated sodium by the electrolysis of sodium hydroxide. ➖By the time, 20 isotopes of sodium are known, but among all, only 23Na is stable. ✅Salient Features of Sodium ➖Sodium metal a soft element that be can be easily cut with a knife. ➖Sodium is a good conductor of heat and electricity. ➖Because of having low atomic mass and large atomic radius, sodium is one of the least dense elements (third least dense element – first two are lithium and potassium). ➖Sodium can float on water. ➖Sodium along its compounds glow yellow (see ima...

✅ Solids in different categories based on the nature of intermolecular forces operating in them: 🔅 Potassium sulphate → Ionic bond is formed,wherein potassium loses electrons & sulphate gains electrons 🔅 Tin → Tin can form two ions Sn 2+ or Sn4+ now depending on what form it is in and what other element it is bonding with then only the type of bonding will be known 🔅 Benzene → it is comprise of sp2 hybridized carbon atoms which makes covalent bond with each other by mutual sharing &pairing of electrons 🔅 Urea → Polar molecular solid & they mostly forms hydrogen bond with other atoms 🔅 Ammonia → covalently bonded  polar compound formed by mutual sharing & pairing of electrons between nitrogen & three hydrogen atoms 🔅 Water → covalently  bonded  polar compound formed by mutual sharing of electrons between oxygen & hydrogen atoms 🔅 Zinc sulphide → it exist in the form of crystals & makes coordination bond 🔅 Graphite → it consist of carbon ...

♨️💢Classification of solids as ionic, metallic, molecular, network (covalent) or amorphous. (i) Tetra phosphdecoxide(P4O10)  → Molecular (ii) Ammonium phosphate(NH4)3PO4  → ionic (iii) SiC → Network (Covalent) (iv) I2 → molecular (v) P4 → Molecular (vi) Plastic → amorphous (vii) Graphite → Network (Covalent) (viii) Brass → metallic (ix) Rb → metallic (x) LiBR → ionic (xi) Si → Network (Covalent)

✅ Important Points to Remember: Electrochemistry – Galvanic Cells ✍️ A galvanic cell is a type of electrochemical cell that converts chemical energy into  electrical energy. The electrochemical cell which converts electrical energy into chemical energy is called electrolytic cell. ✍️ Electrochemical cells are also called galvanic or voltaic cells, after the names of Luigi Galvani and Alessandro Volta who were the first to perform experiments on the conversion of chemical energy into electrical energy. ✍️ In a salt bridge, the electrolytes like KCl, KNO3 or NH4NO3 are preferred because their ions have almost equal transport number, viz., 0.5, i.e., they move with almost the same speed when an electric current flows through the ✍️ Galvanic cells are used to convert chemical energy into electrical energy. Two electrodes are usually set up in two separate beakers. The electrolytes taken in the two beakers are different. Galvanic cells are based upon spontaneous redox reactions. A salt ...

✅ Atoms (a) The sizes of the atoms taken in Thomson’s model and Rutherford’s model have the same order of magnitude. (b) In the ground state of Thomson’s model, the electrons are in stable equilibrium. However, in Rutherford’s model, the electrons always experience a net force. (c) A classical atom based on Rutherford’s model is doomed to collapse. (d) An atom has a nearly continuous mass distribution in Thomson’s model, but has a highly non-uniform mass distribution in Rutherford’s model. (e) The positively charged part of the atom possesses most of the mass in both the models.

✅ Electrolytic Cells and Electrolysis ✍️ Electrolysis is a process of passing a direct current through the electrodes to achieve a chemical reaction. It is not possible to achieve a chemical reaction when the chosen electrolyte is in a solid-state. ✍️ Aqua regia also known as royal water is a yellow-orange mixture of concentrated nitric acid and hydrochloric acid in the ratio 1:3. It is used by an alchemist to dissolve noble metals like gold and silver. ✍️ Electrodes which do not take part in the chemical reaction during electrolysis are known as inert electrodes. Gold, silver and graphite do not take part in the process, but graphite is preferred because gold and silver electrodes are expensive. ✍️ In the electrolysis of NaCl, if the electrolyte is molten NaCl, then the only ions formed after dissociation are Na+ and Cl– ions. The cathode being a negatively charged electrode attracts the positive Na+ ions and neutralizes it to form Sodium metal. ✍️ Na2SO4 dissociates into Na+ and SO42...

⁉️What makes a glass different from a solid such as quartz? Under what conditions could quartz be converted into glass? The first difference between them is that quartz contains almost 99% silicon dioxide while glass contains only 80% silicon dioxide. Secondly, glass has a irregular molecular structure while quartz has a symmetrical molecular structure. Thirdly, quartz can withstand high temperature & pressure ,whereas glass is unstable at high temperature & pressure. Fourthly, glass act as an insulator & do not conduct electricity,while quartz conducts electricity. For the conversion of quartz into glass, the quartz has to be melted & cooled rapidly.

Board Class 12 10 11 9 8 CBSE: 🔰 Role of Bacteria in nitrogen cycle 🔰  Nitrogen fixation: (1) Many free-living soil inhabiting bacteria such as, Azotobacter (aerobic), Clostridium (anaerobic), etc. have ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen into ammonia. (2) The other group of nitrogen fixing bacteria lives in symbiotic association with other plants. (3) The most important symbiotic nitrogen fixing bacteria is Rhizobium spp. (4) The various species of Rhizobium inhabit different leguminous plants. For example, R. leguminosarium infects soyabeans, etc. (5) They develop root nodules and fix atmospheric nitrogen into ammonia in symbiotic association with leguminous plants. (6) The fixed nitrogen is partly taken up by the leguminous plants and metabolised. (7) A part of fixed nitrogen is diffused out into the surrounding soil. Ammonification: (1) The nitrogenous compounds of the dead remains of plants, animals and their excretory products are decomposed into ammonia by a number of bact...

🔥Increasings or Decreasing Order🔥 🔴 01. Melting point= Li > Na > K > Rb > Cs 🔴 02. Colour of the flame= Li-Red, Na-Golden, K-Violet, Rb-Red, Cs-Blue, Ca-Brick red, Sr-Blood red, Ba-Apple green 🔴 03. Stability of hydrides = LiH > NaH > KH > RbH> CsH 🔴 04. Basic nature of hydroxides= LIOH < NaOH < KOH < RbOH < CsOH 🔴 05. Hydration energy= Li> Na > K> Rb > Cs 🔴 06. Reducing character= Li > Cs > Rb > K > Na 🔴 07. Stability of +3 oxidation state=  B> Al > Ga > In > T1 🔴 08. Stability of +1 oxidation state= Ga < In < TI 🔴 09. Basic nature of the oxides and hydroxides=  B< Al< Ga < In < TI 🔴 10. Relative strength of Lewis acid= BF3 < BCl3 < BBr3 < BI3 🔴 11. Ionisation energy= B> Al <Ga > In <TI 🔴 12. Reactivity= C<Si< Ge < Sn <Pb 🔴 13. Metallic character= C< Si < Ge < Sn < Pb 🔴 14. Acidic character of the oxides=  Co2 > SiO2 ...

❗️❗️Electric Charges and Fields ❗️❗️ 📌NCERT PICKS 📌 🔴  There is a spark or crackle when we take off oursynthetic clothes or sweater in dry whether.  🔴 It is observed that if two glass rods rubbed with wool or  silk cloth are brought close to each other, they repel each  other.  🔴  On rubbing two body, the mass of one body slightly get  lowered.  🔴  An ebonite rod held in hand can be charged by rubbing  with funnel but a copper rod cannot be charged like this.  🔴 When we touch a pith ball with an electrified plastic rod,  some of the negative charges on rod are transferred.  🔴  While calculating the force between the two charges  from coulomb's law, never take into account, the sign of  two charges. It just indicates nature of the force.  🔴 The test charge used to measure electric field at point is  taken as unit in magnitude or very small.  🔴 Field lines are always directed from high...

🧩Algebra- Revision Notes on Probability🧩 ➖➖➖➖➖➖➖➖➖➖➖➖ The sum of all the probabilities in the sample space is 1. The probability of an event which cannot occur is 0. The probability of any event which is not in the sample space is zero. The probability of an event which must occur is 1. The probability of the sample space is 1. The probability of an event not occurring is one minus the probability of it occurring. The complement of an event E is denoted as E' and is written as P (E') = 1 - P (E) P (A∪B) is written as P (A + B) and P (A ∩ B) is written as P (AB). If A and B are mutually exclusive events, P(A or B) = P (A) + P (B) When two events A and B are independent i.e. when event A has no effect on the probability of event B, the conditional probability of event B given event A is simply the probability of event B, that is P(B). If events A and B are not independent, then the probability of the intersection of A and B (the probability that both events occur) is defined by...

♻️Important Notes - Electrochemical Cells♻️ ► An electrochemical cell can convert electrical energy to chemical energy and can also convert electrical energy to chemical energy. There are two types of electrochemical cells- Galvanic cell and Electrolytic cell. ► Cathodes are usually metal electrodes. It is the electrode where reduction takes place. The cathode is the positive electrode in a galvanic cell and a negative electrode in an electrolytic cell. Electrons move into the cathode. ► A half-cell is half of an electrochemical cell (electrolytic or galvanic), where either oxidation or reduction occurs. At equilibrium, there is no transfer of electrons across the half cells. Therefore, the potential difference between them is nil. ► A salt bridge is a device used to connect the oxidation and reduction half-cells of a galvanic cell (a type of electrochemical cell). Strong electrolytes are generally used to make the salt bridges in electrochemical cells. Since ZnSO4 is not a strong elec...

✍️Notes on Coordination Compounds Ligands: an ion or molecule capable of donating a pair of electrons to the central atom via a donor atom. ➖Unidentate ligands: Ligands with only one donor atom, e.g. NH3, Cl-, F- etc. ➖Bidentate ligands: Ligands with two donor atoms, e.g. ethylenediamine, C2O42-(oxalate ion) etc.  ➖Tridentate ligands: Ligands which have three donor atoms per ligand, e.g. (dien) diethyl triamine. ➖Hexadentate ligands: Ligands which have six donor atoms per ligand, e.g. EDTA.  Chelating Ligands:  ➖Multidentate ligand simultaneously coordinating to a metal ion through more than one site is called chelating ligand. Example: Ethylenediamine (NH2CH2CH2NH2) ➖These ligands produce a ring like structure called chelate. ➖Chelation increases the stability of complex.  Werner’s Theory: ➖Metals possess two types of valencies i.e. primary (ionizable) valency and secondary (nonionizable) valency. ➖Secondary valency of a metal is equal to the number of ligands attac...

✅Notes on Chemical and Ionic Equilibrium 👉🏻Equilibrium Equilibrium is the state of a process in which the properties like temperature, pressure, and concentration etc of the system do not show any change with passage of time. ➖In all processes which attain equilibrium, two opposing processes are involved. ➖Equilibrium is attained when the rates of the two opposing processes become equal.  ➖If the opposing processes involve only physical changes, the equilibrium is called Physical Equilibrium.  ➖If the opposing processes are chemical reactions, the equilibrium is called Chemical Equilibrium.  Physical Equilibrium ➖Solid – liquid Equilibrium: H2O(s) = H2O(l)  ➖Liquid – Gas Equilibrium: H2O(l) = H2O(g) ➖Solid – Solution Equilibrium: Salt(Solid) = Salt(in solution) ➖Gas –Solution equilibrium: CO2(g) = CO2(in solution) Equilibrium in Chemical Process  Reversible reaction:  A reaction in which not only the reactants react to form the products under certain cond...

🛑Structure of the Atom🛑 ➖By 1900, it was discovered that the atom was not a simple, indivisible particle, but rather it contains sub-atomic particles. ➖J.J. Thomson discovered the sub-atomic particle namely ‘electron.’ ➖J.J. Thomson was the first person who proposed a model for the structure of an atom. ➖In 1886, E. Goldstein discovered the presence of new radiations in a gas discharge and named them canal rays. ➖Another positively charged sub-atomic particle was discovered with experiments of canal rays and named it proton. 🧿Thomson’s Model of Atom ➖Thomson proposed that an atom consists of a positively charged sphere and the electrons (negative charge) are embedded in it (as shown in the image given below). ➖Further, Thomson said that the negative and positive charges are equal in magnitude. Thus, the atom as a whole is electrically neutral. 🧿Rutherford’s Model of Atom ➖E. Rutherford is popular as the ‘Father’ of nuclear physics. ➖Rutherford is largely known for his work on radio...

☑️Revision Notes on Biodiversity and Conservation (1) The vast array of species of micro-organisms, algae, fungi, plants and animals occurring on the earth either in the terrestrial or aquatic habitats and the ecological complexes of which they are a part. (2) Diversity ranges from macromolecules to biomes. (3) Biodiversity on earth exists in three levels of organization: (i) Genetic diversity (ii) Species diversity  (4) Genetic diversity (i) It is related to the variations of genes within species. (ii) The variations may be in different variants of same genes (alleles), in entire genes or in chromosomal structures. (ii) Greater the genetic diversity among organisms of a species, more sustenance it has against environmental perturbations. (iii) Genetically uniform populations are highly prone to diseases. (5) Species diversity (i) it is related to the variety of species within a region. (ii) Species richness refers to the number of species per unit area. (iii) Species Evenness refe...